A few years ago, I wrote a 3,500-word research article detailing the religious slip-script red earthenware manufactured in Norwalk, Connecticut, complete with numerous surviving examples. I have always felt this subject deserved far greater attention from both researchers and collectors. While I initially chose to feature this story at the beginning of my two-volume ninth book, America's Great Awakening and Migration: The Red Earthenware of Western New York—a fitting choice given that nineteenth century Western New York was not only a hotbed for pottery production but also a frontier for radical new ideas and religious movements like Mormonism—I wanted to do something different today. I have decided to share the complete article on this website fully illustrated with photographs.
Here is that story!
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During the first half of the nineteenth century, America experienced a profound religious revival. On the western frontier, new faiths were born alongside a nationwide surge in church membership, an eagerness for domestic and international missions, and a dramatic increase in weekly religious meetings.
Historical records indicate intense religious activity among migrants and new settlements throughout much of the country, particularly in western New York during the early 1800s. For instance, the Mormon faith originated in western New York in the 1820s before its adherents migrated to Ohio and eventually Utah. This newfound religious fervor—fueled by the nation's Second and Third Great Awakenings—manifested visually in the slip script decorated red earthenware manufactured in Norwalk, Connecticut during the nineteenth century. While Norwalk's eighteenth and nineteenth century pottery has been heavily studied, this specific religious wear has received surprisingly little attention in existing publications.
However, America's fascination with religion is famously documented on a well-published, multi-colored, slip script decorated red earthenware plate made by John Betts Gregory (1782–1842) in Clinton, New York, circa 1810–1829. Inscribed with the words, “Why Will you Die,” this plate predates the religious script pottery made in Norwalk, though a distinct connection may link the two.
Gregory was born in 1782 in Norwalk, where he learned the potter’s craft from Absalom Day (1770–1843) in the Old Well neighborhood. He soon left Norwalk for a position at the Huntington Pottery on Long Island, and by 1810, relocated to Clinton. Gregory eventually returned to Norwalk around 1831, continuing a prolific career in red earthenware production until his death in 1842.
The meaning behind Gregory’s poignant slip-script plate is rooted in Ezekiel 33 (specifically verse 11) in the Old Testament: "Say unto them, As I live, saith Lord God, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked; but that the wicked turn from this way and live; turn ye, turn ye from your evil ways; for why will ye die, O house of Israel?"
19th Century Slip-Script Red Earthenware Plate
Attributed to John Betts Gregory in Clinton, New York
Inscribed with the Religious Sentiment "Why Will You Die"
Formerly Owned by New York Archaeologist and Museum Specialist George Hamell
Circa 1810-1829
See Article for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Private Collection
The majority of this religious slip-script pottery was produced in Norwalk, operating largely independently of Day or Gregory. Instead, a central figure in this industry was Absalom Day's nephew, Asa Edward Smith (1798–1880), a prominent red earthenware and stoneware potter. Interestingly, much of the actual slip-script on these wares was applied by master calligrapher Henry Chichester (1762–1849). The inscriptions of this era spanned a wide variety of subjects, including names, initials, advertisements, historical figures, folk sayings, and favorite household foods. Notable surviving examples include a dish in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art inscribed "New York City," privately owned dishes reading "United States" and "Honour the Humane," and another distinctive piece featuring the maxim, “Prudence Temperance"; prudence is the safeguard of health, while temperance is the defender of beauty.
19th Century Slip-Script Red Earthenware Plate, "New York City"
Attributed to the Asa Smith Pottery in Norwalk, CT
Possibly Decorated by Henry Chichester
Circa 1825
Measures 13 1/3" in Diameter
See Article for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Metropolitan Museum of Art
19th Century Slip-Script Red Earthenware Dish, "United States"
Attributed to Norwalk, CT
See Article for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Private Collection
In their book Norwalk Potteries, authors Andrew L. and Kate Barber Winton highlight Smith's profound impact on the local industry, where they note that Asa Edward Smith dominated the local industry for over half a century, just as Absalom Day previously did in South Norwalk. Operating under various company names stamped on jars, jugs, and pitchers, Smith expanded Norwalk's pottery distribution nationwide and to the West Indies, shipping goods in bulk from Mill Hill to 30 Peck Slip in New York for broad dispersal by rail and water.
Aside from the "New York City" dish, another object that underscores Smith’s focus on the New York market is in the collection of the Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art in Hartford, Connecticut. Inscribed "James Gordon Bennett," the dish likely honors James Gordon Bennett Senior (1795–1872), a Scottish immigrant, or his son, James Gordon Bennett Junior (1841–1918). The elder Bennett founded, edited, and published the New York Herald in May 1835. It quickly revolutionized the newspaper industry and, in 1839, published the first-ever exclusive interview with a sitting president, Martin Van Buren (1782–1862). In 1866, Bennett Senior passed control of the paper—which then boasted the highest circulation in America—to his son.
19th Slip-Script Red Earthenware Dish
Inscribed "James Gordon Bennett"
Attributed to Norwalk, CT
Measures 12" in Diameter
Albert Hastings Pitkin Collection
See Article for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Wadsworth Antheneum Museum of Art
Smith's output also leaned heavily into religious themes tailored to regional worship. In his article "Norwalk (Connecticut) Slip-script Pottery, the Potters, and Related Ware" for the 2016 issue of Ceramics in America, researcher Richard Miller notes: "Customers at the Asa Edward Smith Pottery in Norwalk could order dishes inscribed with the names of saints who served as models for a Christian life. The number of extant examples is large, with those inscribed 'St. Francis Xavier' and 'St. Remigius' typifying most. Among the favorites were martyred saints, two of whom had died or whose remains were rediscovered about the time Connecticut was settled: 'St. Fidelas Martyr' commemorates the man who died at the hands of Calvinists in 1622 and 'St. Martina Virgin and Mayrter' died in 226; her site was discovered in 1634." By preserving the names of individuals who died for their faith, these customized dishes likely functioned as a material extension of the church's involvement in Norwalk.
Additionally, the Franciscan Capuchin friar St. Fidelis Martyr was born Mark Rey (1577–1622) in Sigmaringen, Germany. Before entering the priesthood, he was a practicing lawyer who traveled Europe tutoring aristocrats and defending the poor. In 1612, he joined the Capuchin order, taking the name Fidelis. Later, while serving as head of the newly established Congregation for the Spreading of the Faith, he worked as a missionary in Grisons, Switzerland. His conversions were so successful that local Protestants accused him of spying for the Austrian Emperor, leading to his martyrdom when he was stabbed to death inside a church in Seewis in 1622. He was later canonized by Pope Benedict XIV.
While religious motifs like these were distinct, the pottery's physical distribution was broad. Slip-script red earthenware from the Smith Pottery has been recovered from numerous archaeological sites across New York City. Similar wares have also been found in New Jersey, sharing the market with New Jersey's own robust red earthenware industry, as well as competing imports from Long Island, Philadelphia, and wider Pennsylvania.
Norwalk's production of religious slip-script pottery stands as a unique chapter in nineteenth century American material culture that warrants deeper study. Among the most unusual surviving examples is a red earthenware dish long displayed in the home bar of collector Lewis Scranton in Killingworth, Connecticut. Inscribed “Give Drink to the Thirsty,” the piece has even inspired modern reproductions by historical potter Greg Shooner in Ohio. The phrasing directly reflects the traditional Corporal Works of Mercy, defined by The Divine Mercy ministry as charitable acts addressing neighborly necessities to "help alleviate human misery—material deprivation, unjust oppression, physical and psychological illness, and death."
The Corporal Works of Mercy traditionally include feeding the hungry, giving drink to the thirsty, clothing the naked, sheltering the homeless, visiting the sick and imprisoned, and burying the dead, with almsgiving to the poor serving as a core witness to fraternal charity. Beyond these foundational works, Norwalk pottery occasionally featured the names of venerated saints:
• St. Boniface (c. 675–754): An English Benedictine monk who led the Anglo-Saxon mission in Germanic Francia during the eighth century, established key church foundations in Germany, and served as Archbishop of Mainz under Pope Gregory III.
• St. Aloysius (1568–1591): An Italian aristocrat who joined the Society of Jesus and died as a student at the Roman College after contracting an illness while caring for epidemic victims; he was later beatified in 1605 and canonized in 1726.
• St. Nicholas, Bishop of Myra (c. 270–343): An early Christian Greek bishop from Myra (modern-day Turkey) celebrated as a wonderworker, the patron saint of numerous groups (including sailors, merchants, and children), and the historical inspiration for Santa Claus.
• St. Edward (c. 1003–1066): Edward the Confessor, the penultimate Anglo-Saxon king of England and the last monarch of the House of Wessex, who reigned from 1042 until his death.
Another notable slip-script example is a plate inscribed “St. Thilarion Abbot,” a reference to Hilarion the Great (291–371). An anchorite widely considered the founder of Palestinian monasticism, Hilarion is venerated as a saint by both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. Remarkably, a fragment bearing this exact inscription was recovered in Manhattan by researcher Scott Jordan, confirming that these specialized religious wares were shipped directly into New York City during the 1800s—likely passing through the 30 Peck Slip distribution hub.
19th Century Red Earthenware Slip-Script Plate Made in Norwalk, CT
Inscribed "St. Thilarion Abbot"
Recovered in New York City
See Above for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Scott Jordan
Norwalk potters also produced plates bearing the name “Our Lady of Mount Carmel,” the title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary as the patroness of the Carmelite Order. The order originated in the late twelfth century with Christian hermits on Mount Carmel in the Holy Land, who dedicated their central chapel to Mary. By the nineteenth century, Our Lady of Mount Carmel had been adopted as the patron saint of Chile. Since the fifteenth century, devotion to her has centered on the Brown Scapular, which tradition holds she bestowed upon the early Carmelite Saint Simon Stock (1165–1265). Her liturgical feast day is celebrated on July 16th.
Two additional saint names documented on Norwalk wares are “St. Alexius” and “St. Cecilia.” Alexius was a fourth century Greek monk celebrated in various religious traditions for living a life of extreme humility and anonymity. Cecilia, a Roman virgin martyr, is venerated across the Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and certain Lutheran churches. She serves as the patroness of music and musicians because, according to tradition, she "sang in her heart to the Lord" as musicians played at her wedding. Her feast day on November 22nd remains a traditional occasion for concerts and musical festivals worldwide.
However, not all religious pottery produced in Norwalk was restricted to saint names or Bible verses; potters also crafted liturgical calendar pieces, such as plates inscribed “The Sixth Week in Lent.” This phrasing directly references Holy Week, the final week of Lent that begins on Palm Sunday and concludes on Holy Saturday. Observed with profound solemnity, Holy Week commemorates the Passion of Jesus Christ. While the term was popularized in the fourth century by prominent Church fathers like St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, and St. Epiphanius of Constantia, their specific names have never been found on any surviving nineteenth century Norwalk slip-script wares.
Another intriguing inscription found on Norwalk pottery is “Bread and Cheese.” While its exact meaning remains open to debate, the phrase carries deep historical and religious connotations. Most notably, "bread and cheese" defines the eucharistic practice of the Artotyrites, a second century Christian sect closely aligned with Montanism that spread throughout ancient Galatia (modern-day Turkey). Deriving their name from the Greek words for bread and cheese, the Artotyrites included cheese in their Communion elements—or baked it directly into the bread—reasoning that humanity's earliest offerings to God included both the fruits of the earth and the products of their dairy flocks.
"Bread and cheese" also connects to an eighteenth century English religious tradition practiced on Whit Sunday, the holy day of Pentecost. As early as 1789, historical records show that each local household was required to contribute a penny toward the cost of bread and cheese. During the ceremony, the parish priest would throw the bread and cheese directly from the church pulpit to the congregation below.
The phrase also holds historical significance on Long Island, New York, where it gave its name to "Bread and Cheese Hollow Road." According to the Northport Historical Society, archaeological consultant Robert Miller provides a compelling origin for the roadway's name involving Richard Smith, the founder of Smithtown. Smith owned the land between Huntington and Smithtown and used this hollow as a border. In his native Yorkshire, England, hawthorn trees grew abundantly, and school children frequently ate the leaves, calling them "bread and cheese." Following traditional English land customs, Smith likely planted a hedge of hawthorn to mark the boundary line before the widespread adoption of split-rail fences.
Beyond these idioms, Norwalk potters also transcribed literal biblical verses, such as the vernacularly spelled phrase, "Blessed are the Poor in spirit for thars is the kingdom of heven.” A dish featuring this exact inscription was sold by Crocker Farm Auction in Sparks, Maryland, in 2014. Their catalog research noted that these words comprise the first of the eight Beatitudes delivered by Jesus during the Sermon on the Mount, found in Matthew Chapter 5 of the New Testament: https://www.crockerfarm.com/stoneware-auction/2014-07-19/lot-27/Very-Important-Norwalk-CT-Redware-Loaf-Dish-Blessed-are-the-Poor-in-spirit-for-thars-is-the-kingdom-of-heven/.
Additionally, a slip-script plate reading, "thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy god in vain," sold at Crocker Farm in 2022. This inscription directly invokes the Third Commandment given to Moses, as recorded in Exodus 20:7: https://www.crockerfarm.com/stoneware-auction/2022-04-08/lot-8/Extremely-Rare-Norwalk-Connecticut-Redware-Plate-w-Elaborate-Ten-Commandments-Inscription/.
Another significant plate sold by Crocker Farm in 2022 bears the maxim, “sin the misery of man & woman.” This phrase likely references the doctrine of original sin—the theological belief that all humanity, since the Fall, inherits an innate depravity that inevitably leads to sin and subsequent spiritual misery as a result of Adam's disobedience and God's subsequent judgment: https://www.crockerfarm.com/stoneware-auction/2022-08-05/lot-206/Very-Rare-Norwalk-CT-Redware-Plate-Sin-the-misery-of-man-woman/.
Ultimately, this specialized pottery reflects the cultural and spiritual values of residents living in Norwalk, southern New England, and downstate New York, likely between 1825 and the 1850s. While America's First Great Awakening occurred from the 1730s to the 1750s, the religious momentum slowed as the colonies shifted their focus toward political turmoil and the American Revolution. However, a Second Great Awakening surged from roughly 1790 into the early 1800s, followed later by a Third Great Awakening from the late 1850s into the early 1900s. Given their production window, these unique religious slip-script dishes beautifully capture the transitional fervor bridging the second and third major religious movements in American history.
Beyond its immediate aesthetic appeal—rooted in the exceptional skill and fluid technique of the applied slip—this pottery serves as a vital touchstone for nineteenth century American culture and, by extension, broader world history. While Norwalk's extensive output of religious slip-script was largely unique in American ceramics, a few compelling parallels exist. For instance, covered red earthenware tobacco jars featuring religious motifs were produced in the Mid-Atlantic region during the 1790s and early 1800s, and in Ontario, Canada, during the 1820s. Attributed to Mennonite potters Daniel Reichard (1780–1859) in Pennsylvania and Jacob Bock (1789–1867) in Waterloo, Ontario, these jars were decorated with images of Saint Ambrose (c. 340–397 AD), the highly influential fourth century bishop: https://www.crockerfarm.com/stoneware-auction/2026-07-31/lot-43/Very-Rare-Daniel-Reichard-1801-Redware-Jar-w-St-Ambrose-Motifs-Washington-Co-MD-or-Dauphin-Co-PA/.
19th Century Molded Red Earthenware Jar Featuring St. Ambrose or Aurelius Ambrosius
Made by Jacob Bock (1789-1867) in Waterloo, Ontario
The Base is Inscribed "Waterloo the 4 Jan 1825"
Stands 6 1/2" Tall
See Article for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Royal Ontario Museum
Nevertheless, the religious slip-script pottery produced at the Smith Pottery deserves greater recognition among contemporary collectors and museums. These objects capture the shared beliefs and sentiments of the eighteenth and nineteenth century potters and their local communities. While traditional red earthenware is widely prized for its striking glaze colors and forms, these faith-driven wares were produced alongside those utilitarian objects, sharing the same physical origins but carrying a distinct spiritual purpose.
However, our current understanding of this Norwalk production remains incomplete, as it relies strictly on surviving examples and archaeological recoveries. It is highly probable that other dishes decorated with religious script have been lost to time. What remains demonstrates a highly localized decorative tradition that was virtually unmatched in abundance by any other nineteenth century American artisan. This unique output raises compelling questions about Asa Smith's motivations: was this distinctive production a natural extension of his personal faith, a shrewd strategy to capitalize on an untapped market niche, or a combination of both? Regardless of his intent, this category of red earthenware stands as a remarkable testament to a specific cultural moment in American history.
Various 19th Century Religious Slip-Script Red Earthenware from Norwalk, CT
See Article for More Information
Photo Courtesy: Various Auction Houses and Private Collections
Please Stay Tuned...Much More to Come...
Bibliography:
Miller, Richard. “Norwalk (Connecticut) Slip-script Pottery, the Potters, and Related Ware.” Ceramics in America, 2016.
Gridley, Amos Delos. History of the Town of Kirkland, New York. New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1874.
Selleck, Charles Melbourne. Norwalk. Self-published, 1896.
Thomas, Justin W. “The Red Earthenware Available in the 18th and 19th Centuries in New York City.” Maine Antique Digest, October 2018.
_____. "The Wares Made By John Betts Gregory In Clinton, New York: An Examination Of Empire State Regional Redware" Antiques & Auction News, April 21, 2021.
_____. A City on the River: The Early Red Earthenware of the Hartford, Connecticut Area. Beverly, Mass.: Historic Beverly, 2023.
_____. “Two Important New York Slip-Script Red Earthenware Plates.” Antiques And The Arts Weekly, January 12, 2024.
_____. “Religious Red Earthenware Tobacco Jars Manufactured In The Mid-Atlantic Region & Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.” Antiques And The Arts Weekly, April 19, 2024.
_____. America's Great Awakening and Migration: The Red Earthenware of Western New York. Beverly, Mass.: Historic Beverly, 2025.
Winton, Andrew L. & Kate Barber Winton. Norwalk Potteries. Canaan, N.H.: Phoenix Publishing, 1981.
